Feminism, as a term, has been used regularly in English since the First International Women’s Conference in in 1892.

The Status of Women in Ancient Society

In large part as a consequence of the feminist movement, historians have focused a great deal of attention in recent years on determining more accurately the status of women in various periods. Although much has been accomplished for the modern period, pre-modern cultures have proved more difficult., sources are restricted in number, fragmentary, difficult to interpret, and often contradictory. Thus it is not particularly surprising that some earlier scholarship concerning such cultures has so far gone unchallenged. An example is Johann Bachofen's 1861 treatise on Amazons, women-ruled societies of questionable existence contemporary with ancient Greece.

Starting from the premise that mythology and legend preserve at least a nucleus of historical fact, Bachofen argued that women were dominant in many ancient societies. His work was based on a comprehensive survey of references in the ancient sources to Amazonian and other societies with matrilineal customs--societies in which descent and property rights are traced through the female line. Some support for his theory can be found in evidence such as that drawn from Herodotus, the Greek "historian" of the fifth century B.C., who speaks of an Amazonian society, the Sauromatae, where the women hunted and fought in wars. A woman in this society was not allowed to marry until she had killed a person in battle.

Nonetheless, this assumption that the first recorders of ancient myths have preserved facts is problematic. If one begins by examining why ancients refer to Amazons, it becomes clear that ancient Greek descriptions of such societies were meant not so much to represent observed historical fact--real Amazonian societies--but rather to offer "moral lessons" on the supposed outcome of women's rule in their own society. The Amazons were often characterized, for example, as the equivalents of giants and centaurs, enemies to be slain by Greek heroes. Their customs were presented not as those of a respectable society, but as the very antitheses of ordinary Greek practices.

Thus, I would argue, the purpose of accounts of the Amazons for their make Greek recorders was didactic, to teach both male and female Greeks that all-female groups, formed by withdrawal from traditional society, are destructive and dangerous. Myths about the Amazons were used as arguments for the male-dominated status quo, in which groups composed exclusively of either sex were not permitted to segregate themselves permanently from society. Bachofen was thus misled in his reliance on myths for information about the status of women. The sources that will probably tell contemporary historians most about women in the ancient world are such social documents as gravestone, wills, and marriage contracts. Studies of such documents have already begun to show how mistaken we are when we try to derive our picture of the ancient world exclusively from literary sources, especially myths.

The primary purpose of the passage is to______.

A．compare competing new approaches to understanding the role of women in ancient societies

B．investigate the ramifications of Bachofen's theory about the dominance of women in ancient societies

C．explain the burgeoning interest among historians in determining the actual status of women in various societies

D．criticize the value of ancient myths in determining the status of women in ancient societies

Mary Wollstonecraft, as the first feminist philosopher, in her A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, argued that _______.

A.women had limited expectations for themselves

B.women were educated to have limited expectations

C.it was the society that had to be blamed for women’s inferiority

D.it was parents’ responsibility to educate and bring up girls

In large part as a consequence of the feminist movement, historians have focused a great deal of attention in recent years on determining more accurately the status of women in various periods. Although much has been accomplished for the modern period, premodern cultures have proved more difficult: sources are restricted in number, fragmentary, difficult to interpret, and often contradictory. Thus it is not particularly surprising that some earlier scholarship concerning such cultures has so far gone unchallenged. An example is Johanna Bachofen's 1861 treatise on Amazons, women-ruled societies of questionable existence contemporary with ancient Greece.,

Starting from the premise that mythology and legend preserve at least a nucleus of historical fact, Bachofen argued that women were dominant in many ancient societies. His work was based on a comprehensive survey of references in the ancient sources to Amazonian and other societies with matrilineal customs-societies in which descent and property rights are traced through the female line. Some support for his theory can be found in evidence such as that drawn from Herodotus, the Greek "historian" of the fifth century B.C., who speaks of an Amazonian society, the Sauromatae, where the women hunted and fought in wars. A woman in this society was not allowed to marry until she had killed a person in battle.

Nonetheless, this assumption that the first recorders of ancient myths have preserved facts is problematic. If one begins by examining why ancients refer to Amazons, it becomes clear that ancient Greek descriptions of such societies were meant not so much to represent observed historical fact--real Amazonian societies--but rather to offer "moral lessons" on the supposed outcome of women’ rule in their own society. The Amazons were often characterized, for example, as the equivalents of giants and centaurs, enemies to be slain by Greek heroes. Their customs were presented not as those of a respectable society, but as the very antitheses of ordinary Greek practices.

Thus, I would argue, the purpose of accounts of the Amazons for their male Greek recorders was didactic to teach both male and female Greeks that all-female groups, formed by withdrawal from traditional society, are destructive and dangerous. Myths about the Amazons were used as arguments for the male-dominated status quoin, in which groups composed exclusively of other sex were not permitted to segregate themselves permanently from society. Bachofen was thus misled in this reliance on myths for information about the status of women. The sources that will probably tell contemporary historians most about women in the ancient world are such social documents as gravestones, wills, and marriage contracts. Studies of such documents have already begun to show how mistaken we are when we try to derive our picture of the ancient world exclusively from literary sources, especially myths.

The primary purpose of the passage is to ______.

A．compare competing new approaches to understanding the role of women in ancient societies

B．investigate Bachofen's theory about the dominance of women in ancient societies

C．analyze the nature of Amazonian society and uncover similarities between it and the Greek

D．criticize the value of ancient myths in determining the status of women in ancient societies

In large part as a consequence of the feminist movement, historians have focused a great deal of attention in recent years on determining more accurately the status of women in various periods. Al though much has been accomplished for the modern period, pre-modern cultures have proved more difficult: sources are restricted in number, fragmentary, difficult to interpret, and often contradictory. Thus it is not particularly surprising that some earlier scholarship concerning such cultures has so far gone unchallenged. An example is Johann Bechofen' s 1861 treatise on Amazons, women-ruled societies of questionable existence contemporary with ancient Greece.

Starting from the premise that mythology and legend preserve at least a nucleus of historical fact, Bachofen argued that women were dominant in many ancient societies. His work was based on a comprehensive survey of references in the ancient sources to Amazonian and other societies with matrilineal customs--societies in which descent and property rights are traced through the female line. Some support for his theory can be found in evidence such as that drawn from Herodotus, the Greek "historian" of the fifth century BC, who speaks of an Amazonian society, the Sauromatae, where the women hunted and fought in wars. A woman in this society was not allowed to marry until she had killed a person in battle.

Nonetheless, this assumption that the first recorders of ancient myths have preserved facts is problematic. If one begins by examining why ancients refer to Amazons, it becomes clear that ancient Greek descriptions of such societies were meant not so much to represent observed historical fact--real Amazonian societies--but rather to offer "moral lessons" on the supposed outcome of women' s role in their own society. The Amazons were often characterized, for example, as the equivalents of giants and monsters, enemies to be killed by Greek heroes. Their customs were presented not as those of respectable society, but as the very anti-theses of ordinary Greek practices.

Thus, I would argue, the purpose of accounts of the Amazons for their male Greek recorders, was enlightening to teach both male and female Greeks that all-female groups, formed by withdrawal from traditional society, are destructive and dangerous. Myths about the Amazons were used as arguments for the male-dominated status quo, in which groups composed exclusively of the other sex were not permitted to segregate themselves permanently from society. Bachofen was thus misled in this reliance on myths for information about the status of woman. The sources that will probably tell con temporary historians most about women in the ancient world are such social documents as grave stones, wills, and marriage contracts. Studies of such documents have already begun to show how mistaken we are when we try to deliver our picture of the ancient world exclusively from literary sources, especially myths.

The primary purpose of the passage is to ______.

A．compare competing new approaches to understanding the role of women in ancient societies

B．investigate Bachofen' s theory about the dominance of women in ancient societies

C．analyze the nature of Amazonian society and uncover similarities between it and the Greek world

D．criticize the value of ancient myths in determining the status of women in ancient societies

The passage suggests which of the following about Dorothy Allison's work? Ⅰ. Non-feminist writers have been less successful in producing historically situated narratives. Ⅱ. Allison's fiction successfully negotiates between essentialist arrogance and a reactionary response. Ⅲ. Allison is more interested in her female antagonists than male protagonists, as characters.

A．Ⅰ only

B．Ⅱ only

C．Ⅰ and Ⅱ only

D．Ⅱ and Ⅲ only

E．Ⅰ,Ⅱ, and Ⅲ

The passage suggests which of the following about Dorothy Allison's work? Ⅰ. Non-feminist writers have been less successful in producing historically situated narratives. Ⅱ. Allison's fiction successfully negotiates between essentialist arrogance and a reactionary response. Ⅲ. Allison is more interested in her female antagonists than male protagonists, as characters.

A．Ⅰ only

B．Ⅱ only

C．Ⅰ and Ⅱ only

D．Ⅱ and Ⅲ only

E．Ⅰ, Ⅱ, and Ⅲ

The passage suggests which of the following about Dorothy Allison's work? Ⅰ. Non-feminist writers have been less successful in producing historically situated narratives. Ⅱ. Allison's fiction successfully negotiates between essentialist arrogance and a reactionary response. Ⅲ. Allison is more interested in her female antagonists than male protagonists, as characters.

A．Ⅰ only

B．Ⅱ only

C．Ⅰ and Ⅱ only

D．Ⅱ and Ⅲ only

E．Ⅰ,Ⅱ, and Ⅲ

Students of United States history, seeking to identify the circumstances that encouraged the emergence of feminist movements, have thoroughly investigated the mid-nineteenth century American economic and social conditions that affected the status of women. These historians, however, have analyzed less fully the development of specifically feminist ideas and activities during the same period.

Furthermore, the ideological origins of feminism in the United States have been obscured because, even when historians did take into account those feminist ideas and activities occurring within the United States, they failed to recognize that feminism was then a truly international movement actually centered in Europe. American feminist activists who have been described as "solitary" and "individual theorists" were in reality connected to a movement—utopian socialism—which was already popularizing feminist ideas in Europe during the two decades that culminated in the first women's rights conference held at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. Thus, a complete understanding of the origin and development of nineteenth century feminism in the United States requires that the geographical focus be widened to include Europe and that the detailed study made of social conditions be expanded to include the ideological development of feminism.

The earliest and most popular of the utopian socialists were the Saint-Simonians. The specifically feminist part of Saint-Simonianism has, however, been less studied than the group's contribution to early socialism. This is regrettable on two counts. By 1832 feminism was the central concern of Saint-Simonianism and entirely absorbed its adherent's energy; hence, by ignoring its feminism, European historians have misunderstood Saint-Simonianism. Moreover, since many feminist ideas can be traced to Saint-Simonianism, European historians' appreciation of later feminism in France and the United States remained limited.

Saint-Simonian's followers, many of whom were women, based their feminism on an interpretation of his project to reorganize the globe by replacing brute force with the rule of spiritual powers. The new world order would be ruled together by a male, to represent reflection, and a female to represent sentiment. This complementarity reflects the fact that, while the Saint-Simonians did not reject the belief that there were innate differences between men and women, they nevertheless foresaw an equally important social and political role for both sexes in their Utopia.

Only a few Saint-Simonians opposed a definition of sexual equality based on gender distinction. This minority believed that individuals of both sexes were born similar in capacity and character, and they ascribed male-female differences to socialization and education. The envisioned result of both currents of thought, however, was that women would enter public life in the new age and that sexual equality would reward men as well as women with an improved way of life.

The author considers those historians who describe early feminists in the US as "solitary" to be

A．insufficiently aware of the ideological consequences of the Seneca Falls conference.

B．overly concerned with the regional diversity of feminist ideas in the period before 1848.

C．insufficiently concerned with the social conditions out of which feminism developed.

D．insufficiently familiar with the international origins of 19th-century American feminist thought.

Two modes of argumentation have been used on

behalf of women’s emancipation in Western societies.

Arguments in what could be called the “relational”

feminist tradition maintain the doctrine of “equality in

(5) difference,” or equity as distinct for equality. They

posit that biological distinctions between the sexes

result in a necessary sexual division of labor in the

family and throughout society and that women’s pro-

creative labor is currently undervalued by society, to

(10) the disadvantage of women. By contrast, the individual-

ist feminist tradition emphasizes individual human rights

and celebrates women’s quest for personal autonomy,

while downplaying the importance of gender roles and

minimizing discussion of childbearing and its attendant

(15) responsibilities.

Before the late nineteenth century, these views

coexisted within the feminist movement, often within

the writings of the same individual. Between 1890 nd

1920, however, relational feminism, which had been the

(20) dominant strain in feminist thought, and which still pre-

dominates among European and non-Western feminists,

lost ground in England and the United States. Because

the concept of individual rights was already well estab-

lished in the Anglo-Saxon legal and political tradition,

(25) individualist feminism came to predominate in English-

speaking countries. At the same time, the goals of the

two approaches began to seem increasingly irreconcil-

able. Individualist feminists began to advocate a totally

gender-blind system with equal rights for all. Relational

(30) feminists, while agreeing that equal educational and

economic opportunities outside the home should be avail-

able for all women, continued to emphasize women’s

special contributions to society as homemakers and

mothers; they demanded special treatment

(35) including protective legislation for women workers,

state-sponsored maternity benefits, and paid compensa-

tion for housework.

Relational arguments have a major pitfall: because

they underline women’s physiological and psychological

(40) distinctiveness, they are often appropriated by political

adversaries and used to endorse male privilege. But the

individualist approach, by attacking gender roles, deny-

ing the significance of physiological difference, and

condemning existing familial institutions as hopelessly

(45) patriarchal, has often simply treated as irrelevant the

family roles important to many women. If the individu-

alist framework, with its claim for women’s autonomy,

could be harmonized with the family-oriented concerns

of relational feminists, a more fruitful model for con-

(50) temporary feminist politics could emerge.

The author of the passage alludes to the well-established nature of the concept of individual rights inthe Anglo-Saxon legal and political tradition in order to______

A．illustrate the influence of individualist feminist thought on more general intellectual trends in English history

B．argue that feminism was already a part of the larger Anglo-Saxon intellectual tradition, even though this has often gone unnoticed by critics of women’s emancipation.

C．explain the decline in individualist thinking among feminists in non-English-speaking countries

D．help account for an increasing shift toward individualist feminism among feminists in English-speaking countries.

E．account for the philosophical differences between individualist and relational feminists in English-speaking countries

Two modes of argumentation have been used on behalf of women&39;s emancipation in Western societies. Arguments in what could be called the “relational" feminist tradition maintain the doctrine of "equality in difference".or equity as distinct for equality. They posit that biological distinctions between the sexes result in a necessary sexual division of labor in the family and throughout society and that women&39;s procreative labor is currently undervalued by society,to the disadvantage of women. By contrast,the individualist feminist tradition emphasizes individual human rights and celebrates women&39;s quest persona autonomy,while downplaying the importance of gender role and minimizing discussion of childbearing and its attendant responsibilities. Before the late nineteenth century, these views coexisted within the feminist movement,often within the writing of the same individual, Between 1890 and 1920, however,relational feminism, which had been the dominant strain in feminist thought, and which still predominates among European and non-Western feminists,lost ground in England and the United States. Because the concept of individual rights was already well established in the Anglo- Saxon legal and political tradition, individualist feminism came to predominate in English-speaking countries.At the same time,the goals of the two approaches began to seem increasingly irreconcilable. Individualist feminists began to advocate a totally gender-blind system with equal rights for all. Reiational feminists,while agreeing that equal educational and economic opportunities outside the home should be available for all women,continued to emphasize women&39;s special contributions to society as homemakers and mothers;they demanded special treatment including protective legislation for women workers ,statesponsored maternity benefits, and paid compensation for housework. Relational arguments have a major pitfall because they underline women&39;s physiological and psychological distinctiveness, they are often appropriated by political adversaries and used to endorse male privilege. But the individualist approach, by attacking gender roles,denying the significance of physiological difference vand condemning existing familial institutions as hopelessly patriarchal, has often simply treated as irrelevant the family roles important to many women. If the individualist framework,with its claim for women&39;s autonomy,could be harmonized with the family-oriented concerns of relational feminists,a more fruitful model for contemporary feminist politics could emerge.

The author mentions the well-established nature of the concept of individual rights in the Anglo-Saxon legal and political tradition in order to____.

A.illustrate the influence of individualist feminist thought on more general in tellectual trends in English history

B.argue that feminism was already a part of the larger Anglo,Saxon intellectual tradition,even though this has often gone unnoticed by critics of women semancipation

C.explain the decline in individualist thinking among feminists in non-English-speaking countries

D.help aecount for an increasing shift toward individualist feminism among feminists in English-speaking countries

The author believes that_____.A.the predominance of individualist feminism in English-speaking countries is a historical phenomenon, the causes of which have not yet been investigated

B.the individualist and relational feminist views are irreconciliable given their theoretical differences concerning the foundations of society

C.a consensus concerning the direction of future feminist politics will probably soon emerge, given the awareness among feminists of the need for coopera-tion among women

D.political adversaries of feminism often misuse arguments based on differences between the sexes to argue that the existing social system should be maintained

It can be inferred from the passage that the individualist feminist tradition denies the validity of which of the following statements?A.A division of labor in a social group can result in increased efficiency with regard to the performance of group tasks.

B.A division of labor in a social group causes inequities in the distribution of opportunities and benefits among group members.

C.A division of labor on the basis of gender in a social group is necessitated by the existence of sex-linked biological differences between male and female members of the group.

D.Culturally determined distinctions based on gender in a social group foster the existence of differing attitudes and opinions among group members.

According to the passage,relational feminists and individualist feminists agree that____.A.individual human rights take precedence over most other social claims

B.the gender-based division of labor in society should eliminated

C.laws guaranteeing equal treatment for all citizens regardless of gender should be passed

D.the same educational and economic opportunities should be available to both sexes

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